For 2 centuries, factories chased low-cost palms and dense ports. At the moment, miners roll into windy plateaus and hydro spillways, asking a less complicated query: the place are the most affordable wasted watts?
When computing can transfer to power reasonably than power to individuals, the map tilts.
Heavy trade has all the time chased low-cost power, nevertheless it nonetheless wanted our bodies and ships. The novelty with Bitcoin (BTC) is how utterly labor, logistics, and bodily product have dropped out of the siting equation.
A mining plant could be one warehouse, a dozen employees, a stack of ASICs, and a fiber line. Its output is pure block rewards, not a cumbersome commodity that have to be shipped. That lets miners plug into genuinely stranded or curtailed power that no standard manufacturing unit would trouble to succeed in, and to hurry when coverage or costs change.
Bitcoin isn’t the primary energy-seeking trade, however it’s the first giant trade whose major location bid is “give me your most cost-effective wasted megawatt, and I’ll present up,” with labor almost irrelevant.
Curtailment creates a brand new subsidy
CAISO curtailed about 3.4 TWh of utility-scale photo voltaic and wind in 2023, up roughly 30% from 2022, and noticed greater than 2.4 TWh curtailed in simply the primary half of 2024 as mid-day technology routinely overshot demand and transmission limits.
Nodal costs usually go destructive: mills pay the grid to take their electrical energy as a result of shutting down is expensive, they usually nonetheless need renewable tax credit.
Miners present up as an odd new bidder. Soluna builds modular information facilities at wind and photo voltaic tasks that absorb energy the grid can’t take up. In Texas, Riot earned about $71 million in energy credit in 2023 by curbing throughout peak demand, usually greater than offsetting the BTC they’d have mined.
In 2024, the Bitcoin mining agency turned curtailment into tens of tens of millions of {dollars} of credit, and in 2025, it’s on observe to beat that, with greater than $46 million of credit booked within the first three quarters alone.
A 2023 paper in Useful resource and Vitality Economics fashions Bitcoin demand in ERCOT and finds that miners can enhance renewable capability but additionally emissions, with a lot of the draw back mitigated if miners function as demand-response assets.
Curtailment and destructive pricing are a de facto subsidy for anybody who can present up precisely the place and when energy is most cost-effective, and mining is architected to do this.
Hash fee strikes sooner than factories
Miners used to seasonally migrate inside China seasonally, chasing low-cost wet-season hydropower in Sichuan after which shifting to coal areas like Xinjiang when the rains ended.
When Beijing cracked down in 2021, that mobility went international: US hash-rate share jumped from single digits to roughly 38% by early 2022, whereas Kazakhstan’s share spiked to round 18% as miners lifted entire farms and re-planted them in coal-heavy grids.
For the previous 12 months, US-based mining swimming pools have mined over 41% of Bitcoin blocks.
Reuters just lately reported that China’s share has quietly rebounded to round 14%, concentrated in provinces with surplus energy.
ASICs are container-sized, depreciate in two to 3 years, and produce the identical digital asset no matter the place they sit. That lets hashrate slosh throughout borders in a approach metal mills or AI campuses can’t.
When Kentucky exempts mining electrical energy from gross sales tax, or Bhutan presents long-term hydropower contracts, miners can pivot in months.
A programmable knob and wasted-watts frontier
ERCOT treats particular giant masses as “controllable load assets” that may be curtailed inside seconds to stabilize frequency.
Lancium and different mining amenities model themselves as CLRs, promising to ramp down virtually immediately when costs spike or reserves skinny. Riot’s July and August 2023 stories learn like grid-services earnings releases, with tens of millions in energy and demand-response credit booked alongside far fewer self-mined cash throughout warmth waves.
The OECD and nationwide regulators now focus on Bitcoin as a versatile load that may both deepen renewable penetration or crowd out different makes use of.
Miners bid on interruptible energy at rock-bottom charges, grid operators acquire a buffer they will name on throughout tight provide, and the grid absorbs extra renewable capability with out overbuilding transmission.
Bhutan’s sovereign wealth fund and Bitdeer are constructing no less than 100 MW of mining powered by hydropower as a part of a $500 million green-crypto initiative, monetizing surplus hydro and exporting “clear” cash. Officers reportedly used crypto income to pay authorities salaries.
In West Texas, wind and photo voltaic fleets run into transmission bottlenecks, producing curtailment and destructive costs.
That’s the place many US miners have located, signing PPAs with renewable vegetation to take capability that the grid can’t all the time take up. Crusoe Vitality brings modular mills and ASICs to distant oil wells, utilizing related gasoline that will in any other case be flared.
Miners cluster the place three circumstances overlap: power is affordable or stranded, transmission is constrained, and native coverage welcomes or ignores them. Bitcoin mines can attain websites {that a} workforce-intensive trade by no means may.
AI adopts the playbook, with limits
The US Division of Vitality’s Secretary’s Vitality Advisory Board warned in 2024 that AI-driven information heart demand may add tens of gigawatts of recent load. It harassed the necessity for versatile demand and new siting fashions.
Corporations like Soluna now pitch themselves as “modular inexperienced compute,” toggling between digital belongings and different cloud workloads to monetize curtailed wind and photo voltaic.
China’s new underwater information heart off Shanghai runs roughly 24 MW, virtually totally on offshore wind, with seawater cooling.
The friction comes from latency and uptime SLAs. A Bitcoin miner can tolerate hours of downtime and seconds of community lag.
An AI inference endpoint serving real-time queries can’t. That can maintain tier-one AI workloads close to fiber hubs and main metros, however coaching runs and batch inference are already candidates for distant, energy-rich websites.
El Salvador’s proposed Bitcoin Metropolis could be a tax-haven metropolis on the base of a volcano, the place geothermal energy would feed Bitcoin mining, with Bitcoin-backed bonds funding each the city and miners.
Whether or not or not it will get constructed, it reveals a authorities pitching “power plus machines” reasonably than labor because the anchor. Information-center booms within the Higher Midwest and Nice Lakes draw hyperscalers with low-cost energy and water regardless of restricted native labor.
Bhutan’s hydropower-backed mining campuses sit removed from main cities.
The civic cloth is skinny. A number of hundred high-skill staff service racks and substations. Tax income flows, however job creation per megawatt is minimal. Native opposition facilities on noise and warmth, not labor competitors.
By 2035, clusters the place energy vegetation, substations, fiber, and some hundred staff outline the “metropolis” turn into believable, machine-first zones the place human settlement is incidental.
Warmth reuse provides income
MintGreen in British Columbia pipes immersion-cooled mining warmth right into a municipal district-heating community, claiming it will probably displace pure gasoline boilers. Norway’s Kryptovault redirects mining warmth to dry logs and seaweed.
MARA ran a pilot in Finland the place a 2 MW mining set up inside a heating plant gives a high-temperature supply that will in any other case require biomass or gasoline.
A miner paying rock-bottom energy charges may promote waste warmth, operating two income streams from the identical power enter. That makes cold-climate websites with district-heating demand newly engaging.
Kentucky’s HB 230 exempts electrical energy utilized in industrial crypto-mining from state gross sales and use tax.
Supporters concede that the trade creates few jobs relative to the dimensions of the facility subsidy. Bhutan’s partnership with Bitdeer bundles sovereign hydropower, regulatory assist, and a $500 million fund.
El Salvador wrapped its geothermal plan and Bitcoin Metropolis in authorized tender standing, tax breaks, and preferential entry to geothermal power from volcanoes.
The coverage toolkit consists of: tax exemptions on electrical energy and {hardware}, fast-track interconnection, long-term PPAs for curtailed energy, and, in some instances, sovereign steadiness sheets or legal-tender experiments.
Jurisdictions compete to ship the most affordable, most dependable stream of electrons with the fewest allowing hurdles.
What’s at stake
For 2 centuries, industrial geography optimized for transferring uncooked supplies and completed items via ports and railheads, with low-cost labor and market entry as co-drivers.
The Bitcoin mining growth is the primary time we’ve had a worldwide, capital-intensive trade whose product is natively digital and whose major constraint is power value.
That has revealed the place the world’s “wasted watts” dwell and the way a lot governments are prepared to pay, in tax breaks, interconnection precedence, and political capital, to show these watts into hash.
If AI and generic compute undertake the identical mobility, the map of future information facilities will probably be drawn much less by the place low-cost palms dwell and extra by the place stranded electrons, cool water, and quiet allowing coexist. Transmission buildouts may erase the curtailment edge.
Coverage reversals may strand billions in capex. AI’s latency necessities might restrict the quantity of workload that may be migrated. And commodity cycles may collapse hashrate economics totally.
However the directionality is seen. Bhutan monetizes hydro via hash. Texas pays miners to close off throughout warmth waves.
Kentucky exempts mining electrical energy from tax. China’s miners quietly reboot in provinces with surplus energy. These are jurisdictions rewriting the bidding guidelines for compute-intensive trade.
If the economic age organized round palms by the harbor, the compute age might manage round watts on the edge. Bitcoin is simply the primary mover exposing the place the map already needs to tear.
